In reality, research concerning these interventions is frequently anecdotal or descriptive in nature, with high levels of heterogeneity in factors such as the type of animal, the nature of the interaction, and the setting. Similarly, while AAI are commonly perceived as beneficial, especially among those with a positive attitude towards companion animals, some authors suggest that these benefits have been overstated. Furthermore, as most research in this area is correlational it is difficult to determine causality better health may increase the likelihood of adopting a companion animal, rather than the reverse, or health and companion animal guardianship may be linked by other factors, such as sociodemographic characteristics or health-related behaviours. Some studies have shown no relationship, or a negative relationship, between keeping companion animals and physical or mental health outcomes. ĭespite these positive findings, research into the benefits of human-animal interaction (HAI) is far from conclusive. These interventions have been used to support improvements in physical, psychological, and behavioural outcomes for a wide range of populations across the lifespan. Similarly, animal-assisted interventions (AAI) are initiated with the specific purpose of improving one or more aspects of human well-being they include goal-oriented animal-assisted therapies delivered by healthcare professionals, and animal-assisted activities which are often volunteer-led and may lack specific treatment goals. In fact, research has indicated that many people choose to keep companion animals for reasons associated with well-being, such as companionship, emotional support, and improved physical health. Companion animal guardianship has been linked with improved physical and psychological outcomes, including lower blood pressure, reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and lower rates of mortality, reduced loneliness, and increased emotional support during mental health crisis. Interacting with non-human animals (hereafter “animals”) has been associated with a range of well-being benefits among humans.